Akathisia

from the greek meaning without sitting.

is a syndrome characterized by unpleasant sensations of “inner” restlessness that manifests itself with an inability to sit still or remain motionless.

etiology:

• as a side effect of medications:
• neuroleptic antipsychotics eg phenothiazines
• antispasmodics
• antidepressants.
• to a lesser extent, be caused by Parkinson’s disease and Parkinsonian-like syndromes.

The Transdermal Nitroglycerin Patch

 

Uses:

• Long term prophylactic management of angina pectoralis
• Control of hypotension of the surgical patient
• Management of chronic CHF

Action:

• acts directly on the smooth muscle of the blood vessels in a similar manner to that of the natural endothelium derived relaxing factor, nitric oxide.
• increases coronary blood flow by dilating coronary arteries
• decreases left ventricular end-diastolic volume and left ventricular end-diastolic volume

Transdermal patch time profile:

• onset = 40-60min
• duration = 8-24hrs

Route and Dose

• 0.1-0.6mg/hr
• up to 0.8 mg/hr
• Patch worn 12-14hrs/day
• prevention of nitrate tolerance by maintaining the presence of therapeutic serum levels for only 12-14 hrs/day
• If nitrates are administered around the clock, tolerance to their effects develops

 

The University of British Columbia. 1995. Medical Management of Ischemic Heart Disease: The Optimal Use of Nitrates. Therapeutics Initiative. Retrieved January 18, 2010 from http://www.ti.ubc.ca/node/94

The Subcutaneous Butterfly

The subcutaneous tissue lies between the skin (epidermis and dermis) and the underlying muscle; it is made up of loose connective tissue and varying amounts of fat.  It also contains cutaneous nerves, small lymph vessels and blood vessels.

 Subcutaneous treatment can be given when treatment is not suitable to be given orally. Subcutaneous treatment can be given in preference to intramuscular medication.

Subcutaneous treatment can be given in preference to intravenous treatment.

medication may be given several times a day into the same site.

The most frequently used sites include

• Abdomen and chest wall (avoiding the umbilical area)
• Thighs: upper and lateral aspects
• Buttocks
• Upper arms: upper and outer aspects

Subcutaneous injections

• 1-2mls can be injected as a bolus into a site.

Subcutaneous infusions

• The abdomen is frequently chosen for infusion of larger volumes.  However, many individuals do not like the thought of having needles in their abdomen.
• Erythema and swelling at the site of infusion

http://www.ich.ucl.ac.uk/clinical_information/clinical_guidelines/cpg_guideline_00154

Anticoagulants

 

• anticoagulant
• reduces risk of thrombus formation

 

Heparin Hemorrhage Risk Indicators

• bleeding gums
• hemotemesis
• hematuria
• melena

 

Diagnostics

• aPTT = activated partial thromboplastin time or PTT = partial thromboplastin time
• allows therapeutic heparin range to be monitored

 

Preexisting conditions that contraindicate heparin use:

• threatened abortion
• cerebral of aortic aneurysm
• cerebrovascular hemorrhage
• severe hypertension
• blood dyscrasia
• recent opthalmic surgery
• recent neurosurgery

 

Preexisting conditions indicative of increased hemorrhage risk

1. recent childbirth
2. severe diabetes
3. severe retanopathy
4. hepatopathy
5. severe trauma
6. vasculitis
7. active ulcer or GI lesion
8. GU or Respiratory tract lesion

 

Over the counter medications which increase hemorrhage risk

1. aspirin
2. nonsteroidal antiinflammatories
3. cephalosporins
4. antithyroid agents
5. probenecid
6. thrombolytics
7. garlic
8. ginger
9. ginkgo
10. horse chestnut
11. feverfew

 

Intramuscular (IM) Injections

IM injection sites

1. faster absorption that sub Q due to greater vascularity of muscle

2. weight and amount of adipose tissue can influence needle site selection

3. obese clients may require a 7.5cm long needle

4. thin clients may require a 1.3-2.5cm needle

5. 90 degree angle for IM

6. healthy average sized pt can tolerate a 3mL dose into a large muscle

7. Children and seniors can tolerate 2mL

8. Small children and large infants 1mL

 

Site selection factors:

1. free or infection or necrosis

2. free of local bruising or abrasions

3. location of underlying bones, nerves and major blood vessels

 

Common Muscle Groups for IM injection Sites

 

1. Gluteus medius

1. Vastus Lateralis

 3. Dorsogluteal

 4. Deltoid

 

 

Perry, A, G, Potter, P, A, Ross-Kerr, J, C and Wood, M, J. 2006. Canadian fundamentals of nursing. 3^rded. Toronto: Elselvier

Subcutaneous Injections and Body Sites

Preparing a subcutaneous injection:

 

 

 

Wash your hands thoroughly with soap and water. Dry on a clean towel.Remove the plastic cap from the drug vial. Wipe the top of the rubber stopper with an alcohol swap. let dry for 10 seconds.

  

 

 

 

 

 

 After removing the bubbles, check the dose of medication in the syringe to be sure that you have drawn up the correct dose. Draw up more medication as needed then repeat the above steps to remove air bubbles.  

 Carefully recap the needle to prevent needle stick injuries during transit to the administration location.

 Use a chart for injection sites, and mark each site once it is used.

 

This is important because repeated injections in the same area can cause scarring and hardening of fatty tissue that will interfere with absorption of medication.

  Expose the injection site. Clean the skin in a circular motion with an alcohol swab, beginning at the center and moving outwards, and let the area dry for about 10 seconds. Remove the needle cap. Hold the syringe barrel as if you were holding a pencil.With your other hand, pinch a fold of skin where the injection will be made.

 

Hold the syringe at a 45o to 90o angle (half-slanted to straight up from the surface), about 2 inches from the skin surface.

 

 

 

 Insert the needle with a quick jab, as if throwing a dart. The needle should go all of the way into the skin.

Pull back on the plunger a little.

If you see blood in the syringe, do not inject the solution.

Remove the syringe right away and discard this syringe.

Prepare a new syringe and try again at a new site.

If there is NO blood in the syringe, slowly push the plunger to inject the drug solution.

Remove the needle.

Put a clean alcohol swab over the injection site, hold for 5 seconds.

If there is bleeding cover with an adhesive bandage.

 

 

 

 Choosing an injection site:

Rotate injection sites, so that the same site is only used once every 6 to 7 weeks.

 Use an injection site where there is a layer of fat between the skin and muscle, such as the thighs, upper arms or abdomen.

 Remove the needle cap, and push the needle through the rubber stopper into the vial. 

Turn the vial upside down and make sure that the needle tip is in the solution. 

 Pull back the syringe plunger slowly, to draw out your dose.  

 

 

Remove the needle from the vial and gently tap the syringe barrel (needle end up) to clear air bubbles. Collect air bubbles at the top of the syringe barrel and slowly push the plunger to eject air. 

 

Perry, A, G, Potter, P, A, Ross-Kerr, J, C and Wood, M, J. 2006. Canadian fundamentals of nursing. 3^rded. Toronto: Elselvier

Hypertension Etiology and Management

 

Pre-Hypertension

• systolic 130-139

• diastolic readings of 85-89

 NB: normal BP = 120/80

 

Hypertension

• systolic greater than 140 mmHg

• diastolic 90 mm Hg

 

Etiology:

 

• thickening of the arterial walls

• loss of elasticity in the arterial walls

• Increase in peripheral vascular resistance within the thick and inelastic vessels

• Heart pumps against greater resistance

• result: blood flow to vital organs (heart, brain and kidneys) decreases

 

Anti-Hypertension Medications

Class	Names	Mechanism of Action
Diuretics	Furosenmide (Lasix) Spironolactone (Aldactone) Metolazone Plolythiazide Benzthiazide	Lowers blood pressure by reducing reabsorption of sodium and water.by the kidneys and thereby lowering the volume of circulating blood
Beta-Adrenergic Blockers	Atenolol (Tenormin) Nadolo (Corgard) Timolol Maleate (Blocadren) Propranolol (Inderal)	Combine with beta-andrenergic receptors in the heart, arteries and arterioles to block response to sympathetic nerve impulses reduce heart rate and thereby reduce cardiac output
Vasodilators	Hydralasine hydrochloride (Apresoline) Minoxidil (Loniten)	Act on arteriolar smooth muscle to cause relaxation and reduce peripheral vascular resistance
Calcium channel blockers	Diltiazem (Cardizem, Dilacor XR)Verpamil hydrochloride (Calan SR) Nifeddipine (Procardia) Nicardipine (Cardine)	Reduce peripheral vascular resistance by systemic vasodilation
Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors	Captopril (Capoten) Enalapril (Vasotec) Lisinopril (Prinivil, Zestril) Benazepril (Lotensin)	Lower blood pressure by blocking the conversion of angiotensin I to angiotensin II, preventing vasoconstriction, reduce aldosterone production and fluid retension, lowering circulating fluid volume

 

Step approach to Antihypertensive therapy

 

1. Initially begin with less than the maximum dose of a thiazide type diuretic, then gradually increase the dose as required until maximum dosage is reached

 2. If blood pressure is not controlled with diuretics alone a sympathetic inhibitor should be added. The dose is increased as required until maximum dosage is reached or side effects appear at the higher level of this medication.

 3. If a third drug is needed to manage the hypertension, hydralazine type peripheral vasodilators are used in combination with the sympathetic inhibitor and diuretic.

 4. If the first three steps are ineffective and reasons other than drug failure have been ruled out, guanethidine, minoxidil or captopril may be added in increasing doses as needed or substituted for one of the drugs.

Perry, A, G, Potter, P, A, Ross-Kerr, J, C and Wood, M, J. 2006. Canadian fundamentals of nursing. 3^rded. Toronto: Elselvier

Codeine

 

 

Classification

 

• Allergy

• Cold

• Cough

• Opioid Analgesic

 

Indications:

 

• management of mild to moderate pain

• Antitussive in small doses

• Off label use = management of diarrhea

 

Action

 

• binds opiate receptors in the CNS

• Alters perception and response to pain stimuli

• general CNS depressant

• depresses cough reflex

• Decreases GI motility

 

Contraindications/Cautions:

 

• Hypersensitivity

• Head Trauma

• Increased Intracranial pressure

• severe renal hepatic or renal pulmonary disease

• hypothryroidism

• adrenal insufficiency

• alcoholism

• Geri or debilitated: dose reduction, increased susceptibility to CNS depression and constipation

• Geri: Prostatic Hyperplasia

• OB: use during labor, respiratory depression may occur in newborn

 

Adverse Rxns/Side Affects

 CNS

• confusion

• sedation

• dysphoria

• euphoria

• floating feeling

• hallucinations

• headache

• unusual dreams

EENT – eyes, ears, nose and throat

• blurred vision

• diplopia

• miosis (constriction of the pupil of the eye.)

 

Respiratory

• Respiratory depression

CV

• hypotension

• bradycardia

GI

• constipation

• nausea

• vomiting

 GU

• urinary retention

 Derm

• Flushing

• Diaphoresis

 Misc

• Physical Dependence

• psychological dependence

• tolerance

 

Interactions

 

• MAO inhibitors (reduce initial dose to 25% of usual dose)

 

Additive CNS depression with:

• alcoholics
• antidepressants

• antihistamines

• sedative/hypnotics

 

Antagonistic effects (partial)

• buprenorphine

• butorphanol

• nalbuphine

• pentazocine

• may ppt withdrawal in physically dependent patients

 

Nalbuphine and pentazocine may decrease analgesia

 

Dosage/Route

• IV

• IM

• PO

 

Assessment

 

• assess BP Pulse, Resp before and during administration

• If resp is <10/min assess lvl of sedation

• Initial drowsiness may diminish with subsequent use

• Assess bowel function: increase fluid intake, bulk and laxatives

• Simulant laxatives should be administered routinely if opioid use exceeds 2-3 days

 

Pain:

• assess pain type, location and intensity before and 1hr after administration (peak)

• increases of 25-50% should be administered until there is either a 50% decrease in numerical pain scale reported or pt reports satisfactory relief

• An equianalgesic chart should be used when changing from one analgesic to another

 

Antidote: Narcan

 

Patient Teaching:

 

• may cause drowsiness caution against driving or other activities that require high alertness

• advise pt to change position slowly to avoid orthstatic hypotension

• caution pt to turn, cough, breath deeply every 2hr to avoid atelectasis

• Good oral hygiene, mouth rinse and sugarless gum may decrease fry mouth

Hazard Vallerand, April,  and Hopfer Deglin , Judith. 2007. Davis` Drug Guide for Nurses. 11th ed. F. A Davis Company, USA.

Common Forms of Medication

Capsules Medication is enclosed in a cylindrical gelatin coating. Drugs are generally released from capsules faster than from tablets.	Tablets Contain medication, binding substances, and disintegrating agents. Some also have added flavoring to make them taste better.	Powders Ultra fine drug particles in a dry form. Depending on the specific medication, they are usually dissolved or mixed in liquids of food and taken immediately after being prepared.	Drops Sterile solution or suspension is administered by a dropper directly into the eye, the outer ear canal, or the nose.
Liquids Liquid medications are available as solutions, a drug preparation that is already dissolved; syrups, which are mixed with sugar and water; suspensions, preparations of finely crushed drugs held in liquid; and elixirs, medications dissolved in alcohol and water.	Inhalants and Sprays Medication is breathed or sprayed into the nose or mouth. Some medications are formulated to escape the container in specific fixed doses, but others are allowed to escape the inhaler in random, or non fixed, doses.	Topical Skin Preparations Available as ointments, which are spreadable, greasy preparations used for local application; creams which are not greasy and are used on the skin only; and lotions, which are solutions or suspensions used on the skin and are not as sticky as creams and ointments.	Suppositories Large, bullet shaped tablets administered either rectally or vaginally; they are designed to melt at body temperature. Injectable Solutions Sterile solutions or suspensions supplied in ampules or bottles.

 

Perry, A, G, Potter, P, A, Ross-Kerr, J, C and Wood, M, J. 2006. Canadian fundamentals of nursing. 3^rded. Toronto: Elselvier

Hyperglycemia: Causes, Onset, Symptoms